The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified just months after the end of the American Civil War, abolished enslavement and involuntary servitude—except as a punishment for a crime—in the entire United States. As passed by Congress on January 31, 1865, and ratified by the states on December 6, 1865, the full text of the 13th Amendment reads:

The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution deals with several aspects of U.S. citizenship and the rights of citizens. Ratified on July 9, 1868, during the post-Civil War era, the 14th, along with the 13th and 15th Amendments, are collectively known as the Reconstruction Amendments. Although the 14th Amendment was intended to protect the rights of formerly enslaved people, it has continued to play a major role in constitutional politics to this day.

The 15th Amendment, ratified on February 3, 1870, extended the right to vote to Black American men seven years after the emancipation proclamation deemed the enslaved population free. Giving Black men voting rights was yet another way for the federal government to recognize them as full American citizens.

The 16th Amendment to the United States Constitution gives Congress the power to collect a federal income tax from all individuals and businesses without sharing or “apportioning” it among the states or basing the collection on the U.S. Census.

The 26th Amendment to the United States Constitution bars the federal government, as well as all state and local governments, from using age as a justification for denying the right to vote to any citizen of the United States who is at least 18 years of age. In addition, the Amendment grants Congress the power to “enforce” that prohibition through “appropriate legislation.”

The original governing document of the United States was the Articles of Confederation, adopted by the Continental Congress in 1777 during the Revolutionary War before the United States was officially a country. This structure combined a weak national government with strong state governments. The national government could not tax, could not enforce the laws it passed, and could not regulate commerce. These and other weaknesses, along with an increase in national feeling, led to the Constitutional Convention, which met from May to September 1787.

Since its final ratification in 1788, the U.S. Constitution has been changed countless times by means other than the traditional and lengthy amendment process spelled out in Article V of the Constitution itself. In fact, there are five totally legal “other” ways the Constitution can be changed.

In Abrams v. United States (1919), the U.S. Supreme Court reinforced the “clear and present danger” test for restricting freedom of speech, previously established in Schenck v. United States, and upheld several convictions under the Sedition Act of 1918 (an amendment to the Espionage Act of 1917). Abrams is best known for its famous dissent, written by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, who had established the “clear and present danger” test just eight months prior.

Arizona v. Hicks (1987) clarified the need for probable cause when seizing evidence in plain view. The United States Supreme Court found that officers must reasonably suspect criminal activity in order for them to lawfully seize items in plain view without a search warrant.

Baker v. Carr (1962) was a landmark case concerning re-apportionment and redistricting. The United States Supreme Court ruled that federal courts could hear and rule on cases in which plaintiffs allege that re-apportionment plans violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Brett Michael Kavanaugh (born February 12, 1965) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Prior to his appointment, Kavanaugh served as a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Nominated to the Supreme Court by President Donald Trump on July 9, 2018, he was confirmed by the Senate on October 6, 2018, after one of the most contentious confirmation processes in U.S. history. Kavanaugh fills the vacancy created by the retirement of Associate Justice Anthony Kennedy. Compared to Kennedy, who was considered moderate on some social issues, Kavanaugh is regarded as a strong conservative voice on the Supreme Court.

John Glover Roberts, Jr. (born January 27, 1955) is the 17th chief justice of the United States, serving on and presiding over the United States Supreme Court. Roberts began his tenure on the court on September 29, 2005, after having been nominated by President George W. Bush and confirmed by the U.S. Senate following the death of former Chief Justice William Rehnquist. Based on his voting record and written decisions, Roberts is believed to have a conservative judicial philosophy.

John Marshall served as the chief justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835. During Marshall's 34 year tenure, the Supreme Court attained stature and established itself as a fully co-equal branch of the government.

Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. (March 8, 1841—March 6, 1935) was an American jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1902 to 1932. One of the most often cited and influential Supreme Court justices in history, Holmes is noted for his defense of the First Amendment and creating the doctrine of “clear and present danger” as the only basis for limiting the right of freedom of speech. Retiring from the court at age 90, Holmes still stands as the oldest person to serve as a Supreme Court Justice.

Rod Rosenstein (born Rod Jay Rosenstein on January 13, 1965) is an American attorney and former criminal prosecutor who investigated tax fraud and public corruption before being tapped by Republican President George W. Bush to serve in the Department of Justice as a U.S. attorney in Maryland. Rosenstein enjoyed support and respect from Republicans and Democrats alike and served as the second in command at the Department of Justice under Bush's two successors in the White House, Barack Obama and Donald J. Trump. Rosenstein's political legacy, though, will very likely center on his controversial move to appoint Special Counsel Robert S. Mueller III to investigate Russia's attempts to influence the 2016 presidential election.

Ruth Bader Ginsburg (born Joan Ruth Bader; March 15, 1933— September 18, 2020) was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. She was first appointed to the U.S. Court of Appeals in 1980 by President Jimmy Carter, then to the Supreme Court by President Bill Clinton in 1993, taking the oath of office on August 10, 1993. After former Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, Ginsburg is the second-ever female justice to be confirmed to the court. Along with justices Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan, she is one of only four female justices ever to be confirmed.

Samuel Anthony Alito Jr. (born on April 1, 1950) is a Supreme Court justice who has served on the court since January 31, 2006. He is known for being one of the most conservative justices in modern history. His nickname is Scalito because his political views and judgments are similar to that of the late Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia.

Browder v. Gayle (1956) was a District Court case that legally ended segregation on public buses in Montgomery, Alabama. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the case, allowing the District Court's judgment to stand.

In Brown v. Mississippi (1936), the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that, under the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, forced confessions cannot be admitted into evidence. Brown v. Mississippi marked the first time the Supreme Court reversed a state trial court conviction on the basis that the defendants’ confessions were coerced.

Do campaign donations qualify as speech? In Buckley v. Valeo (1976) the United States Supreme Court held that several key provisions of the Federal Election Campaign Act were unconstitutional. The decision became known for tying campaign donations and expenditures to Freedom of Speech under the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.